Research Methodology - Introduction
Concepts Relating To Research Design
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Some of the important concepts relating to Research Design are discussed below:
Concepts
Relating To Research Design:
Some of the important concepts relating to Research Design are discussed below:
A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values like height, weight, income etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of the term. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute(s) considered. The phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as ‘continuous variables’. But all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called ‘non-continuous variables’. In statistical terms, they are also known as ‘discrete variables’. For example, age is a continuous variable, whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable depend upon the changes in other variable or variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent variable. And, if more variables determine demand, like income and price of the substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the price of original commodity. In other words, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables like price of the original commodity, income and price of substitutes.
The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variables, are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s school performance and their self-confidence, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, a dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable(s) on the dependent variable is technically called the ‘experimental error’. Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the influence of extraneous variables on the dependent variable/s is completely controlled, and the influence of independent variable/s is clearly evident.
One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of extraneous variable(s). Technically, the term ‘control’ is used when a researcher designs the study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous variables. The term ‘control’ is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions.
The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.
When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which relates to a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified, thus are not classified as research hypotheses.
When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis-testing research. Such research may be in the nature of experimental design or non-experimental design. The research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known as ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’, whereas the research in which the independent variable is not manipulated is termed as ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’. For example, assume that a researcher wants to examine whether family income influences the school attendance of a group of students, by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two variables. Such an example is known as a non-experimental hypothesis-testing research, because the independent variable - family income is not manipulated here. Again assume that the researcher randomly selects 150 students from a group of students who pay their school fees regularly and then classifies them into two sub-groups by randomly including 75 in Group A, whose parents have regular earning, and 75 in Group B, whose parents do not have regular earning. Assume that at the end of the study, the researcher conducts a test on each group in order to examine the effects of regular earnings of the parents on the school attendance of the student. Such a study is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research, because in this particular study the independent variable regular earnings of the parents have been manipulated.
When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as ‘control group’. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an ‘experimental group’. In the afore-mentioned example, Group A can be called as control group and Group B as experimental group. If both the groups, A and B are exposed to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as ‘experimental groups’. A research design may include only the experimental group or both the experimental and control groups together.
Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups are subject to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings and those with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study attempts to examine through an experiment the comparative effect of three different types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertilizers would be treated as the three treatments.
Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance, an experiment may be conducted to examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be categorized into two types, namely, ‘absolute experiment’ and ‘comparative experiment’. If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a comparative experiment.
Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such experimental units must be selected with great caution.
Some of the important concepts relating to Research Design are discussed below:
1. Dependent And Independent Variables:
A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values like height, weight, income etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of the term. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute(s) considered. The phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as ‘continuous variables’. But all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called ‘non-continuous variables’. In statistical terms, they are also known as ‘discrete variables’. For example, age is a continuous variable, whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable depend upon the changes in other variable or variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent variable. And, if more variables determine demand, like income and price of the substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the price of original commodity. In other words, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables like price of the original commodity, income and price of substitutes.
2. Extraneous Variables:
The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variables, are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s school performance and their self-confidence, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, a dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable(s) on the dependent variable is technically called the ‘experimental error’. Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the influence of extraneous variables on the dependent variable/s is completely controlled, and the influence of independent variable/s is clearly evident.
3. Control:
One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of extraneous variable(s). Technically, the term ‘control’ is used when a researcher designs the study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous variables. The term ‘control’ is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions.
4. Confounded Relationship:
The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.
5. Research Hypothesis:
When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which relates to a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified, thus are not classified as research hypotheses.
6. Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis Testing Research:
When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis-testing research. Such research may be in the nature of experimental design or non-experimental design. The research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known as ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’, whereas the research in which the independent variable is not manipulated is termed as ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’. For example, assume that a researcher wants to examine whether family income influences the school attendance of a group of students, by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two variables. Such an example is known as a non-experimental hypothesis-testing research, because the independent variable - family income is not manipulated here. Again assume that the researcher randomly selects 150 students from a group of students who pay their school fees regularly and then classifies them into two sub-groups by randomly including 75 in Group A, whose parents have regular earning, and 75 in Group B, whose parents do not have regular earning. Assume that at the end of the study, the researcher conducts a test on each group in order to examine the effects of regular earnings of the parents on the school attendance of the student. Such a study is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research, because in this particular study the independent variable regular earnings of the parents have been manipulated.
7. Experimental And Control Groups:
When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as ‘control group’. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an ‘experimental group’. In the afore-mentioned example, Group A can be called as control group and Group B as experimental group. If both the groups, A and B are exposed to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as ‘experimental groups’. A research design may include only the experimental group or both the experimental and control groups together.
8. Treatments:
Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups are subject to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings and those with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study attempts to examine through an experiment the comparative effect of three different types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertilizers would be treated as the three treatments.
9. Experiment:
Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance, an experiment may be conducted to examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be categorized into two types, namely, ‘absolute experiment’ and ‘comparative experiment’. If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a comparative experiment.
10. Experimental Unit(s):
Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such experimental units must be selected with great caution.
Tags : Research Methodology - Introduction
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