Consumer learning can be thought of as the process by which individuals acquire the purchase and consumption knowledge and experience that they apply to future related behavior. Several points in this definition are worth noting.
Introduction
Marketers are concerned with how individuals learn because they
want to teach them, in their roles as consumers, about products, product
attributes, and potential consumer benefits; about where to buy their products,
how to use them, how to maintain them, and even how to dispose off them.
Marketing strategies are based on communicating with the consumer.
Marketers want their communications to be noted, believed,
remembered, and recalled.
For these reasons, they are interested in every aspect of the
learn-ing process.
There is no single, universal theory of how people learn.
There are two major schools of thought concerning the learning
process: one consists of Behavioral learning theories, the other of cognitive
learning theories. Cognitive theorists view learning as a function of purely
mental processes, although behavioral theorists focus almost exclusively on
observable behaviors (responses) that occur as the result of exposure to
stimuli.
Consumer Learning
Consumer learning can be
thought of as the process by which individuals acquire the purchase and
consumption knowledge and experience that they apply to future related
behavior. Several points in this definition are worth noting.
First, consumer learning is a
process; that is, it continually evolves and changes as a result of newly
acquired knowledge eor from actual experience.
Both newly acquired knowledge
and personal experience serve as feedback to the individual and provide the
basis for future behav-ior in similar situations.
The role of experience in
learning does not mean that all learning is deliberately sought. A great deal
of learning is also incidental, acquired by accident or without much effort.
The term learning encompasses the total range of learning, from simple, almost
reflexive responses to the learning of abstract concepts and complex problem
solving. c) Most learning theorists recognize the existence of different types
of learning and explain the differences through the use of distinctive models
of learning. Despite their different viewpoints, learning theorists in general
agree that in order for learning to occur, certain basic elements must be
present—motivation, cues, response, and reinforcement.
Motivation - Motivation is based on needs
and goals.
The degree of relevance, or
involvement, with the goal, is critical as to how motivated the consumer is to
search for information about a product. Uncovering consumer motives is one of
the prime tasks of marketers, who try to teach consumer segments why their
prod-uct will best fulfill their needs.
Cues - If motives serve to stimulate
learning, cues are the stimuli that give direction to the motives.
In the marketplace, price,
styling, packaging, advertising, and store displays all serve as cues to help
consumers fulfill their needs. Cues serve to direct consumer drives when they
are consistent with their expectations.
Response - How individuals react to a
cue—how they behave— constitutes their response. A response is not tied to a need
in a one-to-one fashion. A need or motive may evoke a whole variety of
responses. The response a consumer makes depends heavily on previous learning;
that, in turn, depends on how related responses were reinforced previously.
Reinforcement - Reinforcement increases the
likelihood that a specific response will occur in the future as the result of
particular cues or stimuli.
Behavioral
Learning Theories
Behavioral learning theories
are sometimes called stimulus response theories. a) When a person responds in a
predictable way to a known stimulus, he or she is said to have “learned.”
Behavioral theories are most concerned with the inputs and outcomes of
learning, not the process. Two theories relevant to marketing are classical
conditioning and instrumental (or operant) conditioning.
Classical Conditioning
Early classical conditioning
theorists regarded all organisms as passive recipients.
Conditioning involved
building automatic responses to stimuli. Ivan Pavlov was the first to describe
conditioning and to propose it as a general model of how learning occurs.
For Pavlov, conditioned
learning results when a stimulus that is paired with another stimulus elicits a
known response and serves to produce the same response when used alone.
He used dogs to demonstrate
his theories.
The dogs were hungry and
highly motivated to eat.
Pavlov sounded a bell and
then immediately applied a meat paste to the dogs’ tongues, which caused them
to salivate.
After a sufficient number of
repetitions of the bell sound, followed almost immediately by the food, the
bell alone caused the dogs to salivate.
In a consumer behavior
context, an unconditioned stimulus might consist of a well-known brand symbol
(e.g., the Microsoft “windows” icon) that implies technological superiority and
trouble-free operation (the unconditioned response).
Conditioned stimuli might
consist of new products bearing well-known symbols.
Cognitive Associative Learning
Recent conditioning theory
views classical conditioning as the learning of associations among events that
allows the organism to anticipate and “represent” its environment. The
relationship (i.e., contiguity) between the conditioned stimulus and the
unconditioned stimulus (the bell and the meat paste) influenced the dogs’
expectations, which in turn influenced their behavior salivation). Classical conditioning is seen as
cognitive associative learning not the acquisition of new reflexes, but the
acquisition of new knowledge about the world.
Optimal conditioning—that is, the creation of a strong association between the conditioned stimulus (CS)
and the unconditioned stimulus (US)—requires forward conditioning; that is, the
CS should precede the US, repeated pairings of the CS and the US, a CS and US
that logically belong together, a CS that is novel and unfamiliar, and a US
that is biologically or symbolically salient. Under Neo-Pavlovian conditioning, the consumer can be viewed as an
information seeker who uses logical and perceptual relations among events,
along with his or her own preconceptions, to form a sophisticated
representation of the world.
Strategic Applications of
Classical Conditioning
Three basic concepts can be
derived from classical conditioning:
repetitin, stimulus
generalization, and stimulus discrimination.
Repetition works by increasing the strength of the association and by slowing the process of forgetting.
After a certain number of
repetitions retention declines.
This effect is known as
advertising wear out and can be de-creased by varying the advertising messages.
Wear out may be avoided by
varying the message through cosmetic variation or substantive variation.
According to classical
conditioning theorists, learning depends not only on repetition, but also on
the ability of individuals to generalize.
Stimulus generalization explains why imitative “me too” products succeed in the marketplace: consumers
confuse them with the original product they have seen advertised.
It also explains why
manufacturers of private label brands try to make their packaging closely resemble
the national brand leaders. The principle of stimulus generalization is applied
by marketers to product line, form, and category extensions.
In product line extensions,
the marketer adds related products to an already established brand, knowing
that the new product is more likely to be adopted when it is associated with a
known and trusted brand name.
Marketers offer product form
extensions that include different sizes, different colors, and even different
flavors.
Product category extensions
generally target new market seg-ments.
Family branding—the practice
of marketing a whole line of company products under the same brand name—is
another strategy that capitalizes on the consumer’s ability to generalize
favorable brand associations from one product to the next. Retail private
branding often achieves the same effect as family branding.
Stimulus discrimination is the opposite of stimulus generalization and results in the selection of
specific stimulus from among similar stimuli.
The consumer’s ability to
discriminate among similar stimuli is the basis of positioning strategy, which
seeks to establish a unique image for a brand in the consumer’s mind. The key
to stimulus discrimination is effective positioning, a major com-petitive
advantage.
The image, or position, that
a product or service has in the mind of the consumer is critical to its
success.
Unlike the imitator who hopes
consumers will generalize their perceptions and attribute special
characteristics of the market leader’s products to their own products, market
leaders want the consumer to discriminate among similar stimuli. Most product
differentiation strategies are designed to distinguish a product or brand from
that of competitors on the basis of an at-tribute that is relevant, meaningful,
and valuable to consumers. It often is quite difficult to unseat a brand leader
once stimulus discrimination has occurred.
In general, the longer the
period of learning—of associating a brand name with a specific product—the more
likely the con-sumer is to discriminate, and the less likely to generalize the
stimulus. The principles of classical conditioning provide the theoretical
underpinnings for many marketing applications.
Repetition, stimulus
generalization, and stimulus discrimina-tion are all major applied concepts
that help explain consumer behavior.
Instrumental
Conditioning
Like classical conditioning,
instrumental conditioning requires a link between a stimulus and a response. a)
However, in instrumental conditioning, the stimulus that results in the most
satisfactory response is the one that is learned. Instrumental learning
theorists believe that learning occurs through a trial-and-error process, with
habits formed as a result of rewards received for certain responses or
behaviors. b) Although classical conditioning is useful in explaining how
consumers learn very simple kinds of behaviors, instrumental conditioning is
more helpful in explaining complex, goal-directed activities. According to
American psychologist B. F. Skinner, most individual learning occurs in a
controlled environment in which individuals are “rewarded” for choosing an
appropriate behavior.c) In consumer behavior terms, instrumental conditioning
suggests that consumers learn by means of a trial-and error process in which
some purchase behaviors result in more favorable outcomes (i.e., rewards) than
other purchase behaviors.
d)A favorable experience is
instrumental in teaching the individual to repeat a specific behavior. Like
Pavlov, Skinner developed his model of learning by working with animals. ) In a
marketing context, the consumer who tries several brands and styles of jeans
before finding a style that fits her figure (positive reinforcement) has
engaged in instrumental learning.
Reinforcement of Behavior
Skinner distinguished two
types of reinforcement (or reward) influence, which provided that the
likelihood for a response would be repeated.
The first type, positive
reinforcement, consists of events that strengthen the likelihood of a specific
response.
Negative reinforcement is an
unpleasant or negative outcome that also serves to encourage a specific
behavior.
Either positive or negative
reinforcement can be used to elicit a desired response.
Negative reinforcement should
not be confused with punishment, which is designed to discourage behavior.
Forgetting and extinction
when a learned response is no
longer reinforced, it diminishes to the point of extinction; that is, to the
point at which the link between the stimulus and the expected reward is
eliminated.
Forgetting is often related
to the passage of time; this is known as the process of decay.
Marketers can overcome
forgetting through repetition and can combat extinction through the deliberate
enhancement of con-sumer satisfaction.
Reinforcement schedules—marketers have found that product quality must be consistently high and
provide customer satisfaction with each use for desired consumer behavior to
continue. Marketers have identified three types of reinforcement schedules: Total (or continuous) reinforcement, Systematic (fixed ratio) reinforcement, and Random (variable ratio) reinforcement. Variable ratios tend
to engender high rates of desired
behavior and are somewhat resistant to extinction— perhaps because, for many
consumers, hope springs eternal. Shaping—the reinforcement of behaviors that
must be performed by consumers before the desired behavior can be performed is
called shaping. Shaping increases the probabilities that certain desired
consumer behavior will occur.
Modeling
or Observational Learning
Learning theorists have noted
that a considerable amount of learning takes place in the absence of direct
reinforcement, either positive or negative, through a process psychologists
call modeling or observational learning (also called vicarious learning). They
observe how others behave in response to certain situations (stimuli), the
ensuing results (reinforcement) that occur, and they imitate (model) the
positively reinforced behavior when faced with similar situations. a) Modeling
is the process through which individuals learn behavior by observing the
behavior of others and the consequences of such behavior. b) Their role models
are usually people they admire because of such traits as appearance,
accomplishment, skill, and even social class. c) Children learn much of their
social behavior and consumer behavior by observing their older siblings or
their parents. Advertisers recognize the importance of observational learning
in their selection of models, whether celebrities or unknowns. Sometimes ads
depict negative consequences for certain types of behavior. d) This is
particularly true of public policy ads, which may show the negative
consequences of smoking, of driving too fast, or taking drugs
Cognitive
Learning Theory
Not all learning is the
result of repeated trials. a) Learning also takes place as the result of
consumer thinking and problem solving. Cognitive learning is based on mental
activity. Cognitive learning theory holds that the kind of learning most
characteristic of human beings is problem solving and it gives some control
over their environment.
Information Processing
The human mind processes the
information it receives as input much as a computer does.
Information processing is
related to both the consumer’s cogni-tive ability and the complexity of the
information to be processed. Individuals differ in terms of their ability to
form mental images and in their ability to recall information. The more
experience a consumer has with a product category, the greater his or her
ability to make use of product information.
How
Consumers Store, Retain, and Retrieve Information
The structure of
memory—because information processing occurs in stages, it is believed that
content is stored in the memory in separate storehouses for further processing;
a sensory store, a short-term store, and a long-term store. Sensory store—all
data comes to us through our senses, however, our senses do not transmit
information as whole images.
The separate pieces of
information are synchronized as a single image.
This sensory store holds the
image of a sensory input for just a second or two.
This suggests that it’s easy
for marketers to get information into the consumer’s sensory store, but hard to
make a lasting impression.
Short-term store—if the data
survives the sensory store, it is moved to the short-term store.
This is our working memory.
If rehearsal—the silent,
mental repetition of material— takes place, then the data is transferred to the
long-term store.
If data is not rehearsed and
transferred, it is lost in a few seconds.
Long-term store—once data is
transferred to the long-term store it can last for days, weeks, or even years.
Rehearsal and encoding—the amount of information available for delivery from
the short-term store to the long-term store depends on the amount of rehearsal
an individual gives to it.
Encoding is the process by
which we select and assign a word or visual image to represent a perceived
object.
Learning visually takes less
time than learning verbal information.
How much consumers encode
depends on their cognitive commit-ment to the intake of the information and
their gender. Informa-tion overload takes place when the consumer is presented
with too much information.
It appears to be a function
of the amount of information and time frame of that information.
There are contradictory
studies on what constitutes overload.
The difficulty is determining
the point of “overload.” Retention— information is constantly organized and
reorganized as new links between chunks of information are forged. m) In fact,
many infor-mation-processing theorists view the long-term store as a network
consisting of nodes (i.e., concepts) with links among them.
As individuals gain more
knowledge they expand their network of relationships, and sometimes their
search for additional informa-tion.
This process is known as
activation, which involves relating new data to old to make the material more
meaningful.
The total package of
associations brought to mind when a cue is activated is called a schema.
Research has found that older
adults appear to be more reliant on schema-based information processing
strategies than younger adults.
Consumers’ information search
is often dependent upon how sim-ilar or dissimilar (discrepant) presented
products are to product categories already stored in memory.
Consumers recode what they
have already encoded to include larg-er amounts of information (chunking).
The degree of prior knowledge
is an important consideration.
Knowledgeable consumers can
take in more complex chunks of information than those who are less knowledgeable
in the product category.
Information is stored in
long-term memory in two ways: episodi-cally (i.e., by the order in which it is
acquired) and semantically (according to significant concepts).
Many learning theorists
believe that memories stored semantically are organized into frameworks by
which we integrate new data with previous experience. Retrieval is the process
by which we re-cover information from long-term storage.
A great deal of research is
focused on how individuals retrieve information from memory.
Studies show that consumers
tend to remember the product’s ben-efits, rather than its attributes.
Motivated consumers are
likely to spend time interpreting and elaborating on information they find
relevant to their needs; and are likely to activate such relevant knowledge
from long-term memory.
Research findings suggest
that incongruent (e.g. unexpected) el-ements pierce consumers’ perceptual
screens and improve the memorability of an ad when these elements are relevant
to the ad-vertising message. a) Incongruent elements that are not relevant to
an ad also pierce the consumer’s perceptual screen but provide no memorability
for the product. Interference effects are caused by confusion with competing
ads and result in a failure to retrieve. b) Advertisements for competing brands
or for other products made by the same manufacturer can lower the consumer’s
ability to re-member advertised brand information. c) There are actually two
kinds of interference.
New learning can interfere
with the retrieval of previously stored material.
Old learning can interfere
with the recall of recently learned material.
Limited
and Extensive Information Processing
For a long time, consumer
researchers believed that all consumers passed through a complex series of mental
and behavioral stages in arriving at a purchase decision (extensive information
processing).
These stages ranged from
awareness (exposure to information), to evaluation (preference, attitude
formation), to behavior (purchase), to final evaluation (adoption or
rejection). This same series of stages is often presented as the consumer
adoption process. Some theorists began to realize that there were some purchase
situations that simply did not call for extensive information processing and
evaluation; that sometimes consumers simply went from awareness of a need to a
routine purchase,
without a great deal of
information search and mental evaluation (limited information
processing).Purchases of minimal personal importance were called low
involvement purchases, and complex, search-oriented purchases were considered
high-involvement purchases.
Involvement
Theory
Involvement theory developed
from research into hemispherical lateralization or split-brain theory.
The premise is that the right
and left hemispheres of the brain spe-cialize in the kinds of information they
process.
The left hemisphere is
responsible for cognitive activities such as reading, speaking, and attribution
information processing.
The right hemisphere of the
brain is concerned with nonverbal, timeless, pictorial, and holistic
information.
Involvement Theory and Media Strategy
Individuals passively process
and store right-brain information.
Because it is largely
pictorial, TV viewing is considered a right hemisphere activity.
Passive learning was thought
to occur through repeated exposures to low-involvement information.
The left hemisphere is
associated with high-involvement information.
Recent research suggests that
pictorial cues help recall and familiarity, although verbal cues trigger cognitive
functions, encouraging evaluation.
The right-brain processing
theory stresses the importance of the visual component of advertising,
including the creative use of symbols.
Pictorial cues are more
effective at generating recall and familiarity with the product, although
verbal cues (which trigger left-brain processing) generate cognitive activity
that encourages consumers to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the
product.
There are limitations to split-brain theory.
Research suggests the spheres
of the brain do not always operate independently of each other, but work
together to process information. There is evidence that both sides of the brain
are capable of low- and high-involvement. It does seem the right side is more
cognitively oriented and the left side more affectively oriented.
Involvement Theory and Consumer Relevance
A consumer’s level of
involvement depends on the degree of personal relevance that the product holds
for the consumer.
High-involvement purchases
are those that are very important to the consumer in terms of perceived risk.
Low-involvement purchases are
purchases that are no very important to the consumer, hold little relevance,
and little perceived risk.
Highly involved consumers
find fewer brands acceptable (they are called narrow categorizers); uninvolved
consumers are likely to be receptive to a greater number of advertising
messages regarding the purchase and will consider more brands (they are broad
categorizers).
Central
and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion
Central and peripheral routes
to persuasion—the central premise is that consumers are more likely to weigh
information carefully about a product and to devote considerable cognitive
effort to evaluating it when they are highly involved with the product category
and vice versa.
Use of the central route to
persuasion is more effective in marketing for high-involvement purchases.
The peripheral route to
persuasion is more effective for low-involvement purchases. The elaboration
likelihood model (ELM) suggests that a person’s level of involvement during
message processing is the critical factor in determining the most effective
route of persuasion.
Thus, when involvement is
high, consumers follow the central route and base their attitudes or choices on
the message arguments.
When involvement is low, they
follow the peripheral route and rely more heavily on other message elements to
form attitudes or make product choices.
The marketing implications of
the elaboration likelihood model are clear:
For high-involvement purchases,
marketers should use arguments stressing the strong, solid, high-quality
attributes of their products—thus using the central (i.e., highly cognitive)
route.
For low-involvement
purchases, marketers should use the peripheral route to persuasion, focusing on
the method of presentation rather than on the content of the message(e.g.,
through the use of celebrity spokespersons or highly visual and symbolic
advertisements).
Measures
of Involvement
Researchers have defined and
conceptualized involvement in a variety of ways including ego involvement,
commitment, communication involvement, purchase importance, extent of
information search, persons, products situations, and purchase decisions.
Some studies have tried to
differentiate between brand involvement and product involvement.
Others differentiate between
situational, enduring, and response involvement.
The lack of a clear
definition about the essential components of involvement poses some measurement
problems.
Researchers who regard
involvement as a cognitive state are concerned with the measurement of ego
involvement, risk perception, and purchase importance.
Researchers who focus on the
behavioral aspects of involvement measure such factors as the search for and
evaluation of product information.
Others argue that involvement
should be measured by the degree of importance the product has to the buyer.
Because of the many different dimensions and conceptualizations of involvement,
it makes sense to develop an involvement profile, rather than to measure a single
involvement level.
Marketing
Applications of Involvement
Involvement theory has a
number of strategic applications for the marketer. f) The left-brain (cognitive
processing)/right-brain (passive processing) paradigm seems to have strong
implications for the content, length, and presentation of both print and
television advertisements. g) By understanding the nature of low-involvement
information processing, marketers can take steps to increase consumer
involvement with their ads. Measures of Consumer Learning Market share and the
number of brand-loyal consumers are the dual goals of consumer learning.
Brand-loyal customers provide
the basis for a stable and growing market share.
Brands with larger market
shares have proportionately larger groups of loyal buyers.
Recognition
and Recall Measures
Recognition and recall tests
are conducted to determine whether consumers remember seeing an ad, the extent
to which they have read it or seen it and can recall its content, their
resulting attitudes toward the product and the brand, and their purchase
intentions.
Recognition tests are based
on aided recall, although recall tests use unaided recall.
In recognition tests, the
consumer is shown an ad and asked whether he or she remembers seeing it and can
remember any of its salient points.
In recall tests, the consumer
is asked whether he or she has read a specific magazine or watched a specific
television show, and if so, can recall any ads or commercials seen, the product
advertised, the brand, and any salient points about the product.
The
Learning Processes Among The Customer Roles
Comparison
of Learning Theories